12  Stereo and 3D vision

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12.1 Two-view geometry

12.1.1 The epipolar constraint

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12.1.2 The essential and fundamental matrices

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12.1.3 Estimation from correspondences

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12.1.4 Stereo rectification

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12.2 Stereo matching

12.2.1 Block-matching costs: SAD, SSD, NCC, census

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12.2.2 Aggregation and disparity selection

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12.2.3 Semi-global matching

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12.2.4 Learned stereo matchers (outline)

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12.2.5 Disparity to depth and triangulation

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12.3 Uncertainty in 3D measurement

12.3.1 Depth-error propagation from disparity

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12.3.2 Task uncertainty versus datasheet accuracy

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12.3.3 Uncertainty budgets for 3D measurement

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12.4 3D imaging modalities

12.4.1 Passive stereo

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12.4.2 Structured-light triangulation and fringe projection

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12.4.3 Time-of-flight cameras

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12.4.4 LiDAR and long-range sensing

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12.4.5 Photogrammetry, structure from motion and MVS

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12.4.6 Comparison and selection guide

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12.5 Point clouds and 3D representations

12.5.1 Point-cloud data structures and file formats

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12.5.2 Filtering, downsampling and normal estimation

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12.5.3 Meshing and surface reconstruction

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12.5.4 Voxelisation and occupancy representations

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12.6 Point-cloud registration and alignment

12.6.1 Iterative closest point (ICP) and variants

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12.6.2 Feature-based 3D registration

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12.6.3 Global alignment strategies

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12.7 3D measurement in practice

12.7.1 Sensor acceptance testing with calibrated artefacts

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12.7.2 Surface interaction: specular and translucent materials

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12.7.3 Warm-up drift and environmental control

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